MEDIA GLOBALIZATION IN THE SUBCONTINENT …：在南亞次大陸媒介全球化…

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1、CHALLENGES OF MEDIA GLOBALIZATION FORDEVELOPING COUNTRIESAbida Eijaz ABSTRACTSince the invention of the printing press in 1450, people have acknowledged the potential influence of mass media messages on audiences. The development of communication technology enhanced the circle of influence and the w

2、orld transformed into a global village. Technology facilitated to remote control people and things. Owing to global media every one knows of world events as they happen. The very concept of media globalization reenacts debates that often took place long ago in communication research. These are the d

3、ebates including hypodermic needle paradigms, theories of powerful effects, theories of limited effects, theories stressing media uses and gratifications, theories of reception and resistance. However, media globalization challenges the concept of Normative Theories of Media. With the expansion and

4、extension of media, the debates of impacts, effects and influences of globalization divide the world into centers and peripheries. Immanuel Wallersteins World System Theory helps to understand various dimensions of media globalization. Economic disparities and class difference are increasing as the

5、richest 20% of worlds population are controlling 82.7% of the world income, while the poorest 20% of Worlds population earn only 0.2% of the worlds income. Though debates of NWICO and MacBride report suggested measures but the impact of media globalization is very complex. Even regimes are affected

6、as well as empowered to affect the wills of individuals due to global media. The CNN Effect theory explains this point in detail. Developing countries are more vulnerable. Wilbur Schramm suggested six “essential functions” of communication in developing countries; to contribute to the feeling of nat

7、ion-ness, to be the voice of national planning, to help to teach the necessary skills, to help to extend the effective market, to prepare people to play their new parts, to prepare the people to play their role as a nation among nations. The paper addresses the challenges posed by media globalizatio

8、n in the backdrop of assumed functions of media in developing countries.“All the world can learn about world events is what New York, London, or Paris chooses to tell them. Farrar, Ronald t. (1997). Mass Communication an Introduction to the Field. New York: The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.Since the i

9、nvention of the printing press in 1450, people have acknowledged the potential influence of mass media messages on audiences. The development of communication technology enhanced the circle of influence. Mass media brought major alteration in both human thought at the individual level and cultural d

10、evelopments at the collective level. The process of social, cultural and technological evolution is by no means at an end. In the pre-empirical era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scholars from various disciplines concentrated on the potential influences of press. Among the prominent rese

11、archers were Max Weber (1910), Walter Lippmann (1922), Willard Bleyer (1924), John Dewey (1927), and Robert Ezra Park (1940). The empirical era perceived mass media as catering powerful, direct and immediate effects at a large scale. This assumption of media effects led to extensive studies in areas

12、 ranging from political campaigns to portrayal of violence, pornography, racial discrimination and women etc. Technology facilitated the processes of connectedness at a larger scale. This phenomenon of increased interconnectedness of economies, polities, societies and cultures is perceived as global

13、ization. Media served as a tool to accelerate these processes and rubbed the boundaries. Anthony Giddens Giddens, A., (1990): The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford University Press, p.64. called this rapid development time-space distanciation. Technology facilitated to remote control people and th

14、ings. The coverage of world events by global media is so pervasive that almost every key office and operations center around the globe keeps sets constantly tuned to the global channels. In real-time warfare, everyone knows as soon as events happen. The very concept of media globalization reenacts d

15、ebates that often took place long ago in communication research. These are the debates including hypodermic needle paradigms, theories of powerful effects, theories of limited effects, theories stressing media uses and gratifications, theories of reception and resistance. With the expansion and exte

16、nsion of media, the debates of impacts, effects and influences of globalization divide the world into centers and peripheries. Immanuel Wallersteins World System Theory helps to understand various dimensions of media globalization. The World System Theory (WST) describes three levels of technology i

17、nvolved in the global communications; countries equipped with modern technology are labeled as core nations, countries that are in transitional age and striving hard to get an access to modern technology are semi-peripheral nations while countries with poor information and communication technology a

18、re peripheral nations. WST is a functional model of the global flow of information, goods, and services from core nations (e.g., US, EU, Japan) to semi-peripheral (e.g., Mexico, Brazil, Middle East) and peripheral (e.g., most of Africa, Latin America, Asia) nations. Media globalization trends equipp

19、ed owners to produce and distribute messages at a larger scale. Cross ownership and conglomeration trends equipped the owners to perpetuate similar messages through various media. Conglomeration trends are the product of media globalization and tend to monopolize and blur the idea of plurality of vo

20、ices. Ben H. Bagdikian Ben H. Bagdikian (1997). The Media Monopoly. Boston: Beacon Press traces the cross ownership and conglomeration trends in his book Media Monopoly. He says that in 1983, fifty corporations dominated most of every mass medium. In 1987, the fifty companies shrunk to twenty nine.

21、In 1990, the twenty nine had shrunk to twenty three. In 1997, there were ten biggest media firms that dominated almost every mass medium. Transnational circulation of cultures paved the way to acculturation that promoted commercialization and commodification. These trends benefited the owners and fa

22、cilitated political economy of the media. The entire process is assisting concentration of wealth in few hands of the world. Economic disparities and class difference is increasing day by day. Planning and policy making is in the hands of richest. They are the owners of media giants and media moguls

23、, maneuvering ideologies. They formulate policies and control message systems of their corporations. Through the media mechanism they are manipulating the perceptions, thinking and psyches of people. Media globalization facilitates them to control semi peripheral and peripheral nations. Core nations

24、 are technologically advanced and rich. The richest 20% of worlds population are controlling 82.7% of the world income while the poorest 20% of Worlds population earn only 0.2% of the worlds income. Media globalization assists the richest to control the poor and maintain the status quo. The argument

25、 is corroborated by the following graph.Distribution of world GDP, 1989Quintile of PopulationIncomeRichest 20%82.7%Second 20%11.7%Third 20%2.3%Fourth 20%2.4%Poorest 20%0.2%Source: United Nations Development Program. 1992 Human Development ReportAlmost all the richest belong to the core countries. Ho

26、wever, the majority of the ruling richest in third world is indebted to core nations for their intellect, legitimacy and sustaining power. Although new communication technology is providing additional means of dissemination of information but in developing countries it is leading to widen the gap be

27、tween those who have access to information and those who do not have it. This phenomenon of communication imperialism is a conscious and organized effort taken by the U.S. military-communication conglomerates to maintain a commercial, political, and military superiority. They are policing the world

28、system through global media. McKibben Bill McKibben. (1992). The Age Of Missing Information. New York: Random House. P.160. writes, “We believe that we live in the age of information, that there has been an information revolution. While in a certain narrow sense this is the case, in many important w

29、ays the opposite is true”. It has become a challenge to get a conceptual grip on a rising, wide-ranging and globe-shaking processes caused by global media. Individuals cognitions are susceptible to the dominant media. Even regimes are affected as well as empowered to affect the wills of individuals

30、due to global media. The CNN Effect theory explains this point in detail. CNN is seen in 212 countries with a daily one billion global audience. A vivid example of CNN effect is George H. W. Bushs decision to send American troops in Somalia in 1992 and Clintons decision to withdraw them the very nex

31、t year in 1993. Since the September 11 attacks on the US, international and US media provided millions of people around the world different images of hijacked planes slamming into the World Trade Center in New York. In response, US attacked Afghanistan on 7th October 2001 and the coverage was mainly

32、 provided by US media. There was not a single voice from Afghanistan or any other developing countries media. A critical analysis of the framing of US-Afghan conflict (what and how content is included and excluded) brings forth the challenges of media globalization for developing countries. The conf

33、lict is framed as War on Terrorism or War Against Terrorism. However, an in-depth analysis proves it vice versa. As a result of New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO), less developed countries decided to reduce their dependence on the media of core countries. Import of information tec

34、hnology was promoted to get independence but the further extension of technology gave rise to domination of core countries and dependence of periphery countries. This phenomenon promoted media imperialism. Schiller Schiller, Herbert. (1992). Mass communications and American empire, Westview: Boulder

35、 & Co. defines communication imperialism as a conscious and organized effort taken by the U.S. military-communication conglomerates to maintain a commercial, political, and military superiority. Though, the Mac Bride Commission UNESCO, Many Voices, One World. (New York: UNESCO, 1980). issued a repor

36、t in 1980 that demanded for wider and better balance and a plurality of channels and information. Varis Varis, T. (1984). The international flow of television programs. Journal of Communication, 34(1), 143-152. pointed out that although new communication technology may provide additional means of di

37、ssemination of information, it may also lead to widen the gap between those who have access to information and those who do not have it. As the knowledge-gap hypothesis suggests that better educated people are more benefitted of the information technology as compared to the less educated people. Mor

38、eover, people who belong to higher socio-economic status are better facilitated of the information technology than the lower status. Global media is widening the scope and sustaining this gap. Since its inception, Pakistan is facing economic disparities. Pakistanis who belong to higer socio-economic

39、 status can avail vast opportunities. They have an access to a variety of information sources. They are better informed and they can easily handle issues pertaining to technology. They know internet terminology and they can follow machine related instructions. According to the researchers observatio

40、ns as a teacher, talented students who belong to lower socio-economic status usually remain ignorant of different scholarships and job opportunities. Though, such incentives are meant for the financial assistance of the poor. Foreign and Higher Education Commission (HEC) scholarship announcements us

41、ually appear on internet. Pakistan is experiencing three worlds within it. There are handful of people (upper class) who enjoy all luxuries and facilities of core countries. Situations are maneuvered and controlled by them. They are the political elite and their roots are in feudalism. They have an

42、access to every kind of information. Majority is poor (lower class) and belongs to rural areas. They are experiencing the conditions of peripheral countries, depending on ruling class for every kind of information. They neither have an access to latest information technology nor can benefit of it. I

43、ntensive load shedding makes it hard for middle class educated people to enjoy the benefits of latest information technology. Thus the latest information and communication technology is empowering the upper class.Technological advancement brought changes in the perceived roles and functions of media

44、. Wilbur Schramm listed the following six “essential functions” of communication in developing countries. To contribute to the feeling of nation-ness, to be the voice of national planning, to help to teach the necessary skills, to help to extend the effective market, to prepare people to play their

45、new parts, to prepare the people to play their role as a nation among nations. Co modification of information and outsourcing of media contents restricted the essential functions of media. The early concern revolved around the effects of the press as the press was the only mass media effecting peopl

46、e at a larger scale. Scholars studied the press to bring reforms in society so the early concern was reformist media. Social responsibility theory of the press reflects this approach. The focus was on potentially changing rather than defending media practices. Harold D. Lasswell described following

47、as functions of media; surveillance of the environment, correlation of different parts of the society in responding to the environment, and transmission of the social heritage to next generations. Charles Wright added the function of entertainment. Though, the processes and effects of modern media w

48、ere not similar to print media. Television and internet changed the scope, nature and types of media effects. Television is perceived as a goblet empowering common people to see the entire world in it. Cultivation theory assumes the role of television as a family member, telling stories and serving

49、as a cultural arm at societal level. Television contents are controlled by the owners and agenda is set by the policy makers. Audience gets source-centered messages and information. Early communication debates and research projects revolved around says what and to whom aspects of communication. A cr

50、itical study of who did not get attention for a long time. In case of global media, agenda is not arranged by local forces. It deeply effects on policy agenda and public agenda. Contents of global media can not be a voice of developing countrys planning. Multi-national Corporations and Trans-nationa

51、l Corporations that sponsor global media contents, promote foreign business. This phenomena destabilizes national economies. Immediate effects of global media appear in rearrangement and revision of foreign policies and long-term effects are observed in the form of acculturation and shift in ideolog

52、ies. Though plurality of channels promoted political polarization, but the west considered rise of rest as threat. Chris Patterson Accessed on 3rd July, 2002. noted that wire and television agencies coverage is not neutral, because journalism has an ideological component” a way of seeing the world.

53、Demonization of Muslims is very vivid in western media. Muslims are identified as liberal, radical or extremists. News has a predominantly North-South flow so, international news agencies treat western governments and trans-national corporations as priority sources over institutions from developing

54、countries. However, latest technology is perceived as equipping people to contribute in the manufacturing of contents. Internet blogging, tweeter and face-book are relatively providing space to interact, control and launch contents according to their own will. But their usage lies with upper socio-e

55、conomic class. They can easily interact with the people of the other corner of world but they can not communicate with their own folk. Martin Luther King said, “Men often hate each other because they fear each other; they fear each other because they dont know each other; they dont know each other b

56、ecause they can not communicate; they can not communicate because they are separated (1958). This foreign communication phenomenon hampers the way to the feeling of nation-ness. The result is absence of correlation in different parts of societies in responding to environment. It also serves as an im

57、pediment to the transmission of culture, norms and values of one generation to the next. In general the essential function of media to create feelings of nation-ness is hindered. Culture of any society serves as a glue and bond to bring people closer and united. Entertainment is considered as a clas

58、sic function of media. A large number of Hollywood films, and other entertainment programs, are outsourced and imported by developing countries. Glamorous picture of developed countries results in brain drain. The trends of immigration to developed countries are at increase. Moreover, people often u

59、se information technology for entertainment. Festive media keeps audience in a festive mood. Access to cable channels is almost free as the subscription is extremely nominal. Such environment hampers media to be the voice of national planning and to create feelings of nation-ness. Inefficient system

60、 capabilities, including extractive, regulative, distributive, responsive and symbolic capabilities do not provide opportunities to the media to be the voice of national planning. Media in developing countries should help to teach necessary skills. Most of the developing countries have been colonies

61、 of Britain so they have continued with the same legacy. Their systems are almost the same even the educational system is almost the same. Medium of instruction is English. People of a same country do not know the languages spoken in other parts of the country. English reflects the master slave rela

62、tionship and indigenous languages are dealt with high headedness. English is the language of the majority of global media available in developing countries. Feelings of nation-ness can not be created through a foreign language. As far as indigenous media is concerned, a two-step flow of communicatio

63、n effects on it. Global media contents, formats and agenda shifts to indigenous media. Film themes, television talk shows and dramas are copied. Imported solutions can serve only in similar perspective and backgrounds. Global media is promoting celebrity cultism and media celebrities are serving as

64、guides and role models irrespective of the cultures, languages and religions.Global media is considered to promote and extend effective market. Market forces shaped the corporate culture and giant media corporations emerged as a result. However the economic structures are different in various parts

65、of the world. American capitalism is based on liberal and free market concept while Asian capitalism is sate controlled and guided capitalism. Global media is promoting the business of transnational and multi-national corporations. That is again destabilizing the economy of developing countries. Debts of developing countries are increasing day by day while TNCs, MNCs are making money in developing countries. Due to increased commercialization trends, fetish culture is flour