【0179】9[畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)]某住宅樓工程畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（清單）
【0179】9[畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)]某住宅樓工程畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（清單）,0179,畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì),住宅樓,工程,清單
Modern Architecture
Modern architecture, not to be confused with 'contemporary architecture', is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.
1. Origins
Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.
Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to
accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland.
Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.
Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles
Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.
2. Modernism as Dominant Style
By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.
Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.
In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.
This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard
Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.
Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.
Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from
rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.
Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[1] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of
architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.
現(xiàn)代建筑
現(xiàn)代建筑，不被混淆與“當(dāng)代建筑”，是一個(gè)詞給了一些建筑風(fēng)格有類似的特點(diǎn)，主要的簡(jiǎn)化形式是消除裝飾等。雖然風(fēng)格的設(shè)想早在20世紀(jì)，并大量造就了一些建筑師、建筑教育家和展品，但很少有現(xiàn)代的建筑物建于20世紀(jì)上半葉。第二次大戰(zhàn)后的三十年，最終卻成為主導(dǎo)建筑風(fēng)格的機(jī)構(gòu)和公司建設(shè)。
1. 起源
一些歷史學(xué)家認(rèn)為進(jìn)化的現(xiàn)代建筑作為一個(gè)社會(huì)問題，從息息相關(guān)的工程中的現(xiàn)代性，從而影響了啟蒙運(yùn)動(dòng)，導(dǎo)致社會(huì)和政治革命。
另一些人認(rèn)為現(xiàn)代建筑主要是靠技術(shù)和工程學(xué)的發(fā)展，那就是獲得新的建筑材料，如鋼鐵、混凝土和玻璃。發(fā)明新的建筑技術(shù)，它是作為工業(yè)革命的一部分。1796年，shrewsbury查爾斯bage首先用他的“火”的設(shè)計(jì)，后者則依靠鑄鐵及磚與石材地板。這些建設(shè)大大加強(qiáng)了結(jié)構(gòu)，使它們能夠容納更大的機(jī)器。由于作為建筑材料特性知識(shí)缺乏，一些早期建筑失敗。直到1830年初，伊頓Hodgkinson預(yù)計(jì)推出了型鋼梁，導(dǎo)致廣泛使用鋼架建設(shè)，工業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)完全改變了這種窘迫的面貌，英國(guó)北部領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的描述，“黑暗魔鬼作坊”的地方如曼徹斯特和西約克郡。水晶宮由約瑟夫paxton的重大展覽，1851年，是一個(gè)早期的例子，鋼鐵及玻璃施工可能是一個(gè)最好的例子，就是1890年由William樂男爵延長(zhǎng)和路易沙利文在芝加哥附近發(fā)展的高層鋼結(jié)構(gòu)摩天樓。早期結(jié)構(gòu)采用混凝土作為行政手段的建筑表達(dá)(而非純粹功
利結(jié)構(gòu))，包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近，勞埃德賴特的統(tǒng)一宮，建于1926年瑞士巴塞爾附近的魯?shù)婪蛩固辜{的第二哥特堂。
其他歷史學(xué)家對(duì)于現(xiàn)代主義作為一種風(fēng)格，反彈折衷主義與奢侈的文體弄權(quán)維多利亞時(shí)代和愛德華藝術(shù)。
但無論原因?yàn)楹?，約有1900多位建筑師，在世界各地開始制定新的建筑方法，將傳統(tǒng)的先例(比如哥特式)與新的技術(shù)相結(jié)合的可能性。路易沙利文和賴特在芝加哥工作，維克多奧爾塔在布魯塞爾，安東尼高迪在巴塞羅那、奧托瓦格納和查爾斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在維也納，其中之一可以看作是一個(gè)新與舊的共同斗爭(zhēng)。
2. 現(xiàn)代主義風(fēng)格
由1920年代的最重要人物，在現(xiàn)代建筑里確立了自己的名聲。三個(gè)是公認(rèn)的柯布西耶在法國(guó)，密斯范德爾德羅和瓦爾特格羅皮烏斯在德國(guó)。密斯范德爾德羅和格羅皮烏斯為董事的包豪斯，其中歐洲有不少學(xué)校和有關(guān)團(tuán)體學(xué)習(xí)調(diào)和工藝和傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)技術(shù)。
賴特的建筑生涯中，也影響了歐洲建筑的現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)，特別是通過瓦斯穆特組合。但他拒絕被歸類與他們。賴特與格羅皮烏斯和Van der德羅對(duì)整個(gè)有機(jī)體系有重大的影響。
在1932年來到的重要moma展覽，是現(xiàn)代建筑藝術(shù)的國(guó)際展覽，藝術(shù)家菲利普約翰遜。約翰遜和合作者亨利-羅素閣糾集許多鮮明的線索和趨勢(shì)，內(nèi)容相似，有一個(gè)共同的目的，鞏固了他們?nèi)谌雵?guó)際化風(fēng)格。
這是一個(gè)重要的轉(zhuǎn)折點(diǎn)。在二戰(zhàn)的時(shí)間包豪斯的代表人物逃到美國(guó)，芝加哥，到哈佛大學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)黑山書院。當(dāng)現(xiàn)代建筑設(shè)計(jì)從未成為主導(dǎo)風(fēng)格單一的
住宅樓，在成為現(xiàn)代卓越的體制和商業(yè)建筑，是學(xué)校(專業(yè)領(lǐng)導(dǎo))的唯一可接受的設(shè)計(jì)解決方案，從約1932年至約1984年。
那些從事國(guó)際風(fēng)格的建筑師想要打破傳統(tǒng)建筑和簡(jiǎn)單的沒有裝飾的建筑物。最常用的材料是玻璃外墻，鋼結(jié)構(gòu)支持。具體的樓層和內(nèi)部支撐，平面圖中的功能和邏輯，風(fēng)格成為最明顯的表現(xiàn)在設(shè)計(jì)摩天大樓。這或許是它最有名的表現(xiàn)，包括聯(lián)合國(guó)總部(柯布西耶，奧斯卡niemeyer，霍華德羅伯遜)的帷幕大樓(密斯范德爾德羅)，而在紐約的杠桿府( skidmore ,奧因斯和美林公司)。一個(gè)突出的住宅例子是在洛杉磯的洛弗爾家(理查德中性)。
國(guó)際化風(fēng)格的反對(duì)者聲稱其赤裸裸的，毫不妥協(xié)他們的觀點(diǎn)?？虏嘉饕?jīng)形容建筑物作為“機(jī)械生活”。但人不是機(jī)器，因此，有人建議說：他們不希望生活在一個(gè)機(jī)器。連菲利普約翰遜承認(rèn)是“無聊的盒子”。自八十年代初許多建筑師并沒有故意試圖擺脫直線設(shè)計(jì)，朝向更多的折衷主義風(fēng)格。在21世紀(jì)中葉，一些建筑師開始嘗試有機(jī)形式，使他們感到有更多的人力和方便。本世紀(jì)中葉，現(xiàn)代主義，或有機(jī)現(xiàn)代主義，是很受歡迎，因?yàn)樗拿裰餍院突顫娦?。阿爾瓦阿爾托和eero saarinen是兩個(gè)參加這項(xiàng)運(yùn)動(dòng)中最為活躍的建筑師和設(shè)計(jì)師，其中，影響當(dāng)代現(xiàn)代主義。
至于何時(shí)及為何衰落的現(xiàn)代運(yùn)動(dòng)發(fā)生，雖然還有爭(zhēng)議，批判現(xiàn)代建筑在1960年代開始的理由是，它是普遍的，不育,，精英缺少的含義，其做法已經(jīng)變得僵化，在“風(fēng)格”，揚(yáng)言要淪為一系列小動(dòng)作。齊格弗里德giedion在1961年介紹他的文字演變，空間，時(shí)間和建筑(首寫于1941年) , 可以開始" ,在目前出現(xiàn)一定的混亂存在于現(xiàn)代建筑,如繪畫; 一種稍頓, 即
使是一種疲憊. " 1961年在紐約大都會(huì)藝術(shù)博物館,專題討論題目是"現(xiàn)代建筑:死亡或變態(tài)", 政變似乎無限爭(zhēng)議左右泛美大廈彌漫大中央車站, 在批評(píng)阿達(dá)路易斯huxtable和道格拉斯了Haskell利用現(xiàn)代房地產(chǎn)概念的"空權(quán)"，其財(cái)團(tuán)建筑師: 沃爾特格羅皮烏斯,誠(chéng)貝盧斯基和建設(shè)者金剛砂陸士父子被視為"斷絕"公園大道街景和"抹黑"的名譽(yù).是因?yàn)閳?zhí)政者與現(xiàn)代建筑崛起后, 到了八十年代,后現(xiàn)代建筑的出現(xiàn)戰(zhàn)勝現(xiàn)代,包括圣殿的光的世界, 一種復(fù)古的設(shè)計(jì),其時(shí)間瓜達(dá)拉哈拉哈利斯科鑭luz del Mundo主任的Sede國(guó)際; 然而, 后現(xiàn)代美學(xué)缺乏牽引,由90年代中期以來,一種新的現(xiàn)代(或hypermodern )架構(gòu)再次確立國(guó)際地位. 作為這股風(fēng)潮,批評(píng)中的不少現(xiàn)代已重新批駁,并重新評(píng)估; 但現(xiàn)在必須競(jìng)爭(zhēng),而恢復(fù)傳統(tǒng)的建筑設(shè)計(jì),商業(yè)體制構(gòu)架; 住宅設(shè)計(jì)中仍然是占主導(dǎo)地位的傳統(tǒng)審美，現(xiàn)代派成語再次主宰體制和現(xiàn)代商業(yè)慣例,
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