英語專業(yè)《英美國家概況》必背內(nèi)容精講(修正)

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1、word 英語專業(yè)《英美國家概況》必背內(nèi)容精講 Chapter 1： Land and People 英國的國土與人民 I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英國的不同名稱與其各組成局部 1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名稱：不列顛群島，大不列顛和英格蘭。 2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名

2、稱：大不列顛與北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國。 7u 3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones. 不列顛群島由兩個大島—大不列顛島〔較大的一個〕和愛爾蘭島，與成千上萬個小島組成。 4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales. 大不列顛島上有三個政治區(qū)：英格蘭、蘇格蘭和

3、威爾士。 (1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section. 英格蘭位于大不列顛島南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地區(qū)。 (2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 蘇格蘭位于

4、大不列顛的北部。它有三大自然區(qū)：北部高地，中部低地與南部山陵。首府：愛丁堡。 (3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威爾士位于大不列顛的西部。首府：加的夫 (4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北愛爾蘭是英國第四個區(qū)域。首府：貝爾法斯特。 5.The monwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that w

5、ere once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991. 英聯(lián)邦是曾為英國殖民地的、但現(xiàn)已獨立國家所構(gòu)成的自由聯(lián)合體。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50個成員國。 II. Geographical Features 英國的地理特征 1.Geographical position of Britain: 英國的地理位置： Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in th

6、e North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 英國是一個島國。它位于大西洋北部，與歐洲大陸的某某岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峽和東面的某某將它與歐洲其它局部隔開。 2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southea

7、st are mostly lowlands. 英國的西部和北部主要是高地，東部和東南部主要是低地。 III. Rivers and Lakes 河流與湖泊 Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m). 本尼維斯山為英國最頂峰，海拔1,343米。 Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km). 塞文河是英國最長的河流。全長338公里。 Thames River is the second longest and most important river in

8、 Britain. (336km). 泰晤士河是英國第二大河，也是英國最重要的河。全長336公里。 Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometres). 訥湖〔內(nèi)伊湖〕是英國最大的湖，位于北愛爾蘭。面積為396平方公里。 River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland. 克萊德河是蘇格蘭最重要的河流。 Snowdonia is the highest mountain i

9、n Wales.〔1,085m〕 斯諾多尼亞是威爾士的最高點，海拔1,085米。 IV. Climate 氣候 1. Britain''s favorable climate 英國有利的氣候條件： Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range. 英國屬于

10、海洋性氣候：冬季不過于寒冷，夏季不過于炎熱。全年有穩(wěn)定可靠的降雨量，氣溫變化幅度小。 2.The factors influence the climate in Britain: 影響英國氣候的因素： 1〕The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer; 環(huán)繞四周的海水。冬天，海水可使島內(nèi)氣溫升高，夏天如此使氣溫降低，從而起到平衡季節(jié)溫差的作用； 2〕The prevailing

11、south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate; 一年四季盛行的西南風和西風在冬季從大西洋帶來溫暖、潮濕的空氣，使氣溫適宜； 3〕The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them. 北大西洋暖流經(jīng)不列顛群島西海岸，使氣候

12、變暖。 3.Rainfall 降雨量： Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the south and east. 英國全年降雨量穩(wěn)定，平均降雨量超過1000毫米。英國北部、西部雨量過多，但是南部、東部有所缺乏。 V. The People

13、人口 1.population distribution 人口分布： Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%), t

14、he Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%). 英國人口約570萬，分布極不均勻，90%是城市人口，只有10%是農(nóng)村人口。英國人口組成為：英格蘭人〔81.5%〕，蘇格蘭人〔9.6%〕，威爾士人〔1.9%〕，愛爾蘭人、北愛爾蘭人和其他民族居民。 2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots, Welsh and Irish: 英倫三島民族的祖先： The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Sco

15、ts, Welsh and Irish are Celts. 英格蘭人祖先屬于盎格魯—薩克遜人，而蘇格蘭、威爾士和愛爾蘭人屬于凱爾特人。 3.The difference in character個性差異： The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past. 威爾士人感情豐富，情緒高漲，熱愛音樂，為過去感到自豪。 The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, a

16、nd they are also hospitable, generous and friendly. 蘇格蘭人通常被認為嚴肅、慎重而且節(jié)儉，但是他們同樣也熱情、大方且友好。 The Irish are charm and vivacity. 愛爾蘭人充滿魅力，生性活潑。 4.The difference in speech between southern England and northern England: 英格蘭南方人和北方人語言上的差異： Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; In nor

17、thern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England. 南方人講的英語接近BBC，北英格蘭人的發(fā)音通常要比南英格蘭人寬。 5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威爾士人以這樣的方式使他們的語言與文化保持活力。 Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The grea

18、t event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions petitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art. 一年中他們有稱之為“藝術(shù)年會〞的唱歌、跳舞、詩歌節(jié)。一年中最重要的節(jié)日是全國詩歌音樂比賽會。在那里會舉行威爾士詩歌、音樂、唱歌和藝術(shù)比賽。 6.The main problem in Northern Ireland: 北愛爾蘭存在的主要問題： The fight between the Protestants who are the d

19、ominant group, and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities. 作為統(tǒng)治者的新教徒和要求更多社會、政治與經(jīng)濟權(quán)利的羅馬天主教徒之間的斗爭。 7.Immigrants: 移民： About three million have e to Britain to live and find work since World War II. 自從二戰(zhàn)以來約有三百萬人來英國生活、工作。 Chapter 2：The Origins of a

20、Nation (5000BC-1066) 英國的起源〔公元前5000年—1066年〕 I.Early Settlers 〔5000BC-55BC〕早期的居民〔公元前5000年—公元前55年〕 1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians. 人們所知的英國最早居民是伊比利來人。 2． At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland. 約公元前2000年，從現(xiàn)在的荷蘭和萊茵蘭地區(qū)來了寬口

21、陶器人。 3． The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC. 約公元前700年，克爾特人來到不列顛島。 4． The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. 克爾特人來到不列顛有三次高潮。 The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC. 第一次高潮是約公元前600年蓋爾人的降臨。 The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC. 第二次高潮是約公元前400年布立吞〔不列顛〕人的

22、抵達。 The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC. 第三次是約公元前150年比利其人的到達。 II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD) 羅馬人統(tǒng)治時期的英國〔公元前55年—410年〕 1.British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius inv

23、aded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation. 有記錄的英國歷史開始于羅馬人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，羅馬將軍朱略斯?凱撒兩次入侵英國，均未成功。直到公元43年，克勞鍬才成功占領(lǐng)不列顛。將近四百年里，英國人處于羅馬人的占領(lǐng)下，但這并非是完全的占領(lǐng)。 2. Roman’s influence on Britain. The Roman built many towns, road

24、, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain’s natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. 羅馬人修建了許多城鎮(zhèn)網(wǎng)，道路，澡堂，廟宇和其他建筑物。他們還很好地利用了英國的自然資源。羅馬人還把基督教這門新某某帶到不列顛。 3.Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain. 羅馬對不列顛的影響有限的原因。 First, the Romans alw

25、ays treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons. 首先，羅馬人把不列顛人當作奴隸階段的屬民來對待。其次，在四世紀對羅馬人和不列顛人通婚。最后，羅馬人也未影響普通不列顛人的語言和文化。 前些天，網(wǎng)友Samy給了我一個

26、很好的建議。就是在每個局部的講解前，先簡要介紹一下本次講解的內(nèi)容。我也覺得有了這樣的簡要介紹，就可以使你們一目了然，然后再看后面的具體內(nèi)容，就比擬容易理解。但是由于這個簡要是我自己歸納而成，有些地方可能還存在一些缺陷，還望廣闊朋友能夠諒解。 Summary: This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important people in England from 446 to 1066. These most importan

27、t events are The Anglos-Saxons’ invasion; The Viking and Danish Invasions and The Norman Conquest. (簡要：這是第二章“國家的起源〞的第二局部。在這一局部里，主要是介紹了英國從公元446年到1066年所發(fā)生的重要事件與人物。這些重要事件分別是盎格魯—撒克遜人的入侵，北歐海盜和丹麥人的入侵與諾曼征服)。 III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) 盎格魯—撒克遜人〔公元446—871年〕 1． Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo

28、-Saxons. 盎格魯—薩克遜時代〔奠定了英國的根底〕 In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes. The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the

29、short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give

30、 their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy. 五世紀中葉，朱特人、撒克遜人和盎格魯人不斷入侵不列顛。這是三支日耳曼〔條頓〕部落。 居住在朱特蘭島〔現(xiàn)丹麥南部〕上從事打漁農(nóng)耕的朱特人先抵不列顛。后來從德

31、國北部來的使用短劍的撒克遜人在埃撒克斯、蘇塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王國，統(tǒng)治期從五世紀末至六世紀初。六世紀后半葉，同樣來自德國北部的盎格魯人，在東盎格利亞、麥西亞以與諾森伯利來定居，同時也他們也把名字給了英國人。這七個主要王國〔肯特、埃塞克斯、蘇塞克斯、威塞克斯、東盎格利亞、麥西亞和諾森伯利亞〕，合稱為七王國。 2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity. 最早的盎格魯—撒克遜人改信基督教。 The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christ

32、ianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

33、 He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the mon people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north. 盎格魯—撒克遜人把日耳曼某某帶到了英國。除了康瓦爾、威爾士、蘇格蘭和愛爾蘭中的克爾特人還信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把羅馬圣安德魯修道院的副院長圣奧古斯丁派遣到英格蘭，其使命是使異教徒的英國人皈依基督教。公

34、元579年圣奧古丁成為坎特伯雷大主教。在使國王和貴族皈依基督教方面，奧古斯丁特別成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上歸功于北部修士們的傳教活動。 3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state. 早期盎格魯—撒克遜人為英國做出的貢獻。 The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire r

35、eeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan〔council or meeting of the wisemen〕 to advise the king, t

36、he basis of the Privy Council which still exists today. 盎格魯—撒克遜人為英國國家的形成打下了根底。首先，他們把國家劃分為郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法長官負責執(zhí)法。其次，他們設計的窄條三圃田農(nóng)耕制延用至18世紀。此外，他們還建立了領(lǐng)地制。最后，他們還創(chuàng)立了議會(賢人會議)，向國王提供建議，這就成為了今天仍存在的樞密院的根底。 IV．Viking and Danish invasions 北歐海盜和丹麥人的入侵 1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attac

37、ked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat t

38、o the Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 入侵者是挪威人和丹麥人，從8世紀末開始，他們不斷襲擊英格蘭的各個地方。9世紀，尤其是公元835-878年間已成為嚴重問題。他們甚至占領(lǐng)了約克郡，公元867年時的基督教中心。到9世紀中葉，北歐海盜和丹麥人威脅到撒克遜人的威撒克斯王國的安全。 2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions 艾爾弗雷德國王〔849-899〕和他所做出的貢獻 Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly

39、 agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians. He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy〞. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He transl

40、ated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.〞 阿爾弗雷德是威塞克斯的國王。他打敗了丹麥人，并于公元879年與他們達成了友好協(xié)議。協(xié)議規(guī)定丹麥人控制英格蘭北部和西部〔丹麥法區(qū)〕，而他統(tǒng)治其他地區(qū)。他還勸服一些丹麥首領(lǐng)成為基督教徒。 他因為建立了強大艦隊，而以“英國海軍之父〞聞名于世。他改組了“弗立德〞〔撒克遜軍隊〕，使之更為高效。他將一本拉丁語的書翻譯成英語。同

41、時他還建立了學校，并且說明了法律制度。所有這一切使他當之無愧于“阿爾弗雷德大王。〞的稱號。 V．The Norman Conquest (1066) 諾曼征服〔公元1066年〕 1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death. 威廉在愛德華死后入侵英國的原因。 It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William le

42、d his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England. 據(jù)說，愛德華國王曾答應把英格蘭王位傳給諾曼底公爵威廉，但是賢人會議挑選了哈羅德為國王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交鋒中，

43、威廉打敗了哈羅德軍隊，同時哈羅德也在此戰(zhàn)爭中戰(zhàn)死。 2．The Norman Conquest and its consequences 諾曼征服與其產(chǎn)生的影響。 The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a stron

44、g Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was pletely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and merce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introd

45、uced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts. 1066年的諾曼征服也許是英國歷史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉幾乎沒收了所有土地，將其分發(fā)給他的諾曼追隨者。他用強有力的諾曼政府代替了軟弱的薩克遜政府。于是，封建制度在英國完全建立。開放了與歐洲大陸的關(guān)系，文明和商業(yè)得到開展，引進了諾曼—法國文化、語言、舉止和建筑。教會與羅馬的聯(lián)系更為密切，教會法庭與世俗法庭別離。 3．The English is

46、a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin. 英國是一個集不同民族于一體的國家。許多英國人的祖先是古盎格魯和撒克遜人。而還有一些英國人的是諾曼血統(tǒng)。 Chapter 3：The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381) 英國的形成〔公元1066-1381〕

47、 I. Norman Rule (1066-1381) 諾曼統(tǒng)治〔公元1066-1381〕 1. William''s Rule 〔1066-1087〕 威廉一世的統(tǒng)治〔公元1066-1087〕 England''s feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror 在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度 ①Under William, the feudal system in England was pletely established. ②According to this system, the King owned all the l

48、and personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land''s produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily bine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons, who ha

49、d bee William''s tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of al

50、legiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king. ①在威廉統(tǒng)治下，英國的封建制度得到完全確立。②根據(jù)此制度，國王擁有全國所有土地。③威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族，條件是換取對方服役和收租。④這些地產(chǎn)分散于各處，這樣土地擁有者就不易聯(lián)合起來反叛國王。⑤已成為國王土地承租人的貴族又把土地分配給小貴族、騎士和自由民，同樣換取貨物和服役。⑥在封建等級底層的是農(nóng)奴。⑦英國封建制獨有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領(lǐng)主，而且要效忠于國王。 2. King Henry II and his re

51、forms 亨利二世國王和他的改革 The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy. 亨利二世鞏固君主制的途徑。 Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen

52、’s time; strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia posed of English freemen. 亨利二世采取了一些措施鞏固君主制。他迫使弗蘭德斯雇傭軍離開英國，收回史蒂芬森贈出皇室土地；拆除幾十座史蒂芬森時造德城堡，加強并擴大了他的行政長官們的權(quán)力，依靠由英國自由民組成的民兵獲取軍事支持。 The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law. 亨利二世對法院與法律進展改革的方式。

53、 King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a mon law was gradually establis

54、hed in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop''s court to the King''s court. 亨利二世大大加強了王家法院，擴展了其司法工作的職權(quán)X圍。他將全國分為六個審制區(qū)。

55、案件更多地由巡回法官審理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他統(tǒng)治時期，逐漸建立起超越地方領(lǐng)主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪審員制度代替了舊的殘酷的審判制度。他堅持被控犯有刑事罪的神職人員應由國王法庭審判，而不由主教法庭審判。 II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter 《大憲章》的內(nèi)容與意義 Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its importa

56、nt provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain t

57、heir traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the

58、 barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land. 《大憲章》是約翰國王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的?！洞髴椪隆房偣?3條，其中最重要的內(nèi)容是：(1) 未經(jīng)大議會同意，不得征稅

59、；(2) 只有根據(jù)國家有關(guān)法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以與剝奪他們的財產(chǎn)；(3)教會應享受其所有權(quán)利且有選舉自由；〔4〕倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應保存其古時的權(quán)力和特權(quán)；(5) 全國要使用統(tǒng)一的重量和長度度量衡。盡管人們普遍認為《大憲章》為英國的自由奠定了根底，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國王和貴族之間封建關(guān)系和法律關(guān)系的文件，保證了教會的自由，限制了國王權(quán)利?！洞髴椪隆返木袷窍拗茋鯔?quán)力，使其在英國封建法律允許的X圍內(nèi)活動。 III.The origins of the English Parliament 英國議會的起源 The Great Council is known to be the protot

60、ype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of mons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or pa

61、rties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. 大議會是當今英國議會的原型。1265年，西門德孟福爾召開大議會，各縣有兩名騎士，各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加。大議會開展到后來演變成議會，分為上議院和下議院。其作用是咨詢而非決定；也沒有選舉和政黨。議會的最重要的局部是上議院。 IV．The Hundred Years'' War and its consequences. 百年戰(zhàn)爭與其結(jié)果 The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England

62、 and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes

63、 were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England''s desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes. The English''s being

64、driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French t

65、erritory. 百年戰(zhàn)爭指1337年到1453年英法之間一場斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭，戰(zhàn)爭的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟因素。領(lǐng)土起因尤其是與英國國王擁有法國的阿基坦大片公爵領(lǐng)地有密切關(guān)系，隨著法國國王勢力日增，他們渴望占領(lǐng)這片在他們領(lǐng)土內(nèi)的土地。經(jīng)濟原因如此與弗蘭德斯有關(guān)。弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國羊毛的主要進口商，但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國國王。其他原因還有英國試圖阻止法國幫助蘇格蘭人，以與不斷覺醒的民族意識。 戰(zhàn)爭的結(jié)果：把英國人趕出法國對兩個國家都是幸事：假如國車人繼續(xù)留在法國，那么法國人在領(lǐng)土和財富上所占的優(yōu)勢必然會阻礙別離的英國民族的開展；而法國民族被外國勢力占領(lǐng)了眾多的領(lǐng)土，開

66、展更是長期受阻。 V. The Black Death 黑死病 The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England''s population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century. The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had